En los últimos años, las industrias navales chinas han realizado enormes progresos en apoyo de la modernización de la fuerza de submarinos
En los últimos años, las industrias navales chinas han realizado enormes progresos en apoyo de la modernización de la fuerza de submarinos de la Armada del Ejército Popular de Liberación (PLAN), tanto a través de un sólido compromiso con la investigación y el desarrollo (I+D) como de la mejora de la infraestructura de producción en los tres astilleros de submarinos del país: Astillero Bohai, Huludao; Astillero Wuchang, Wuhan; y Astillero Jiangnan, Shanghai.
No obstante, la base industrial de submarinos de China sigue adoleciendo de sorprendentes deficiencias en propulsión (desde motores diésel marinos hasta pilas de combustible) y silenciamiento de submarinos. Unas relaciones más estrechas con Rusia podrían brindar a China la oportunidad de superar estas limitaciones tecnológicas duraderas aprovechando los resortes políticos y económicos para acceder a los secretos tecnológicos submarinos que le quedan a Rusia.
Introducción
No es fácil cuantificar, y mucho menos analizar, el extenso pero opaco ecosistema de instalaciones industriales y de investigación que participan en el diseño y la producción de los sistemas de guerra submarina de China. Obstaculizada durante mucho tiempo por el embargo de armas de 1989 (posterior a Tiananmen), se ha beneficiado de una avalancha de financiación estatal; se caracteriza por un laberinto de participaciones cruzadas que incluye bancos estatales y empresas privadas que cotizan en bolsa dentro y fuera de China; está profundamente conectada con la comunidad académica de investigación y desarrollo (I+D); y participa en un vasto esfuerzo por superar los cuellos de botella de la tecnología armamentística mediante ingeniosos métodos que van más allá del espionaje tradicional.1 Las tecnologías de guerra submarina son una prioridad estratégica para el gobierno chino, y la I+D relacionada con ellas goza del más alto nivel de respaldo político. 2
Los detalles técnicos de la producción de submarinos, incluidos los subsistemas críticos, son secretos en todos los países que los explotan. En la República Popular China (RPC), la cultura del secretismo extremo en asuntos militares se extiende incluso a cuestiones mucho menos críticas. Dada la falta de presupuestos públicos, los procesos de adquisición opacos y monopolísticos, y los calendarios de construcción secretos, la adquisición de submarinos de la RPC está envuelta en un mayor grado de oscuridad que la de la mayoría de los demás países.
A veces, los analistas no descubren la existencia de un nuevo tipo de submarino hasta que su construcción ya ha finalizado, a través de imágenes de satélite o de filmaciones accidentales. Esta falta de transparencia dificulta la evaluación de la verdadera capacidad de China para construir sistemas de guerra submarina. Al mismo tiempo, los dirigentes chinos están ansiosos por proyectar una imagen de asombroso progreso tecnológico.
Los avances en la producción de armamento se utilizan regularmente con este fin. Por lo tanto, Pekín trata de equilibrar objetivos contradictorios: preservar los secretos técnicos de la producción de submarinos, al tiempo que publicita los éxitos de sus avances para señalar su destreza militar, al tiempo que utiliza habitualmente la desinformación sobre los avances en los programas de armamento avanzado como herramienta de la guerra de la información.3
A pesar de estas advertencias, hay una gran cantidad de fuentes abiertas que contienen pistas sobre la base industrial armamentística que contribuye a los programas tecnológicos de submarinos y guerra antisubmarina (ASW) de China.
Incluso las ofertas de empleo publicadas en las páginas web de las universidades chinas dirigidas a licenciados en carreras técnicas pueden proporcionar valiosos detalles sobre las instalaciones, el personal y las áreas de negocio de una determinada empresa o unidad de investigación.
Además, la información procedente de proveedores extranjeros de subsistemas a China y las experiencias comunicadas por los clientes exportadores de submarinos chinos en Tailandia, Pakistán o Bangladesh pueden aportar interesantes testimonios de primera mano sobre las capacidades reales de los sistemas de guerra submarina chinos frente a las anunciadas.
Este informe se basa principalmente en estos y otros tipos de material de fuentes de libre acceso, complementado con una serie de conversaciones de fondo con ejecutivos de la industria occidental y expertos en guerra submarina. 4
Combinando esta información con los conocimientos ya existentes sobre el funcionamiento de la base industrial armamentística china, y extrapolando las experiencias de construcción de submarinos en otros países, este informe pretende construir al menos una imagen parcial de las tendencias actuales, los éxitos y los cuellos de botella técnicos que aún caracterizan a la base industrial de submarinos de China.
También ofrece algunas evaluaciones prudentes de las implicaciones operativas para el futuro desarrollo de la flota china.
La infraestructura china de construcción naval de submarinos
La construcción naval china ha progresado notablemente en los últimos veinte años 5. Aunque sigue habiendo exceso de capacidad e ineficiencias burocráticas, en general el sector se ha modernizado a fondo, sobre todo gracias a las asociaciones tecnológicas extranjeras en el diseño y la construcción de buques comerciales. Las instalaciones de los principales astilleros se han modernizado hasta alcanzar casi el nivel de los principales astilleros del mundo en Japón y Corea del Sur, y los métodos modernos de diseño y construcción, como la construcción modular y el uso de programas informáticos avanzados de diseño, son ahora una práctica habitual. 6
En los últimos años, el análisis de imágenes por satélite ha demostrado que varios de los principales astilleros navales se han ampliado masivamente con nuevas instalaciones de producción. Aparte de los astilleros que construyen cascos de submarinos, un gran número de instalaciones de diseño, I+D y producción contribuyen a la construcción naval, incluidos los sistemas de guerra submarina (véase la Figura 1).
Astilleros que construyen submarinos
Astillero Bohai, Huludao
Astillero de Wuchang, Wuhan
Jiangnan Shipyard, Shanghai
Expansión de los astilleros
Tamaño del mercado y flujos de capital en la industria china de submarinos
Rendimiento de las industrias chinas relacionadas con los submarinos: Implicaciones para la futura fuerza de submarinos de China
Innovaciones relacionadas con el casco
La atención prestada a la resistencia del casco y a la capacidad de supervivencia no es sorprendente, dado que los primeros submarinos dieseleléctricos chinos parecen haber sido especialmente propensos a los accidentes.
Un dramático reportaje del Diario del Pueblo detalla el accidente:
El oficial al mando, Wang Hongli [...] tomó decisiones audaces y mandó con calma, dando docenas de instrucciones a cada puesto en menos de un minuto; crew members Chen Zujun, Zhu Zhaowei y Mao Xuegang reaccionaron al instante, cortando su propia "vía de escape" al cerrar la puerta de la cabina principal para taponar la fuga; el jefe de escuadrilla de la clase de bombas antiminas, Zeng Gang, agarró la manivela del inserto de ventilación en la oscuridad, [...] con sólo 20 segundos para completar una acción que normalmente lleva un minuto [...].En ese momento crítico, en el que la vida y la muerte pendían de un hilo, todos los oficiales y hombres del submarino trabajaron unidos, con calma y serenidad, [...] lucharon para eliminar el peligro, consiguiendo finalmente que el submarino flotara, y evitaron un desastre mayor que habría destruido el submarino y matado a todos los que iban a bordo "66 .
El curioso caso de la falta de motores diesel autóctonos para los submarinos de exportación
Investigación de sistemas AIP de pila de combustible en China
Un enfoque en el desarrollo de baterías de iones de litio
En 2020, el submarino japonés de clase Taigei fue botado con éxito. Se trata del primer submarino de batería de litio real del mundo.En comparación con el anterior submarino de la clase Sōryū equipado con baterías de plomo-ácido, la densidad energética se ha más que duplicado y el peso se ha reducido a la mitad, lo que ha mejorado cualitativamente su maniobrabilidad y ocultación91.
En nuestro país, las baterías de iones de litio se utilizan ampliamente en dispositivos electrónicos portátiles, vehículos de nueva energía, el sector aeroespacial y los ámbitos militar y de defensa nacional.Algunos ejemplos son los sistemas de soldados individuales, los vehículos de combate del ejército y los equipos de comunicaciones militares para el Ejército, los minisubmarinos y vehículos submarinos (UUV) para la Armada y los aviones de vigilancia no tripulados para la aviación.Especialmente en lo que se refiere a vehículos de nueva energía, China ha desarrollado con éxito una batería de iones de litio de gran capacidad y su rendimiento se sitúa entre los mejores del mundo92.
"Todavía hay una serie de cuestiones que deben resolverse [...].Para instalar baterías electrónicas de litio en submarinos convencionales, primero hay que desarrollar métodos de ensayo que garanticen el rendimiento de seguridad de las baterías en condiciones de acción electroquímica, acción mecánica, acción térmica y acción medioambiental [...].La fuga térmica es el factor más importante que afecta a la seguridad de las baterías de iones de litio.La sobrecarga, el cortocircuito y el calentamiento pueden provocar el desbordamiento térmico. (énfasis añadido).93
Para evitar el desbordamiento térmico de las baterías de iones de litio, los principales enfoques son el análisis y la investigación sobre el diseño de la estructura superficial de las celdas, el proceso de fabricación, la selección de materias primas y la gestión de las baterías [...].Desde el punto de vista de la seguridad, se recomienda utilizar fosfato de hierro y litio para el electrodo positivo y carbono duro de litio o titanato de litio para el electrodo negativo, y desarrollar una batería electrónica de litio de alta seguridad para submarinos convencionales integrando el material activo, la película SEI, más un nuevo electrolito y la tecnología de diafragma revestido de cerámica [...].Tras resolver los problemas mencionados, las baterías electrónicas de litio que sustituyan a las baterías de plomo-ácido para equipar submarinos convencionales están a la vuelta de la esquina" (el subrayado es nuestro)94.
EDT en desarrollo de submarinos e investigación y desarrollo relacionados
Conclusión
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- Sobre la autora
- La Dra. Sarah Kirchberger es Directora Académica del Instituto de Política de Seguridad de la Universidad de Kiel de Kiel (ISPK), Senior Fellow no residente del Atlantic Council y Vicepresidenta del Instituto Marítimo Instituto Marítimo Alemán (DMI). Anteriormente fue Profesora Adjunta de Sinología en la Universidad de Hamburgo de Hamburgo y, anteriormente, analista naval en el constructor naval TKMS. Es autora de Assessing China's Naval Power: Technological Innovation, Economic Constraints, and Strategic Implications (Springer, 2015), coautora de The China Plan: A Transatlantic Blueprint for Strategic Competition (Atlantic Council, 2021) y coeditora y colaboradora de Russia-China.Relations: Emerging Alliance or Eternal Rivals? (Springer, 2022). Sus investigaciones se centran en tecnologías de guerra submarina de China; la modernización del PLAN; el desarrollo de la industria de defensa china; la cooperación militar y tecnológica; y el desarrollo de la industria de defensa china. de defensa chino; la cooperación tecnológico-militar entre China, Rusia y Ucrania; las TED en el ámbito marítimo; y las relaciones estratégicas entre China y Rusia. en la esfera marítima; y en la importancia estratégica del Mar de China Meridional. Ha testificado sobre ha testificado sobre la guerra submarina china ante la Comisión de Revisión Económica y de Seguridad Estados Unidos-China
Kirchberger tiene un doctorado y un máster en Sinología por la Universidad de Hamburgo. La autora está en deuda con su colega, Olha Husieva, por su excelente ayuda en la búsqueda de fuentes en ruso.
Fuentes en ruso. Varias personas de la industria naval occidental y de los servicios de militares occidentales han accedido amablemente a proporcionar a la autora algunas opiniones opiniones de expertos y evaluaciones de fondo, pero desean permanecer en el anonimato.
Referrencias
- For a detailed breakdown of the various legal, illegal, and extralegal strategies employed by China see William C. Hannas and Huey-Meei Chang, “Chinese Technology Transfer—An Introduction,” in William C. Hannas and Didi K. Tatlow (eds.), China’s Quest for Foreign Technology: Beyond Espionage (N.Y.: Routledge, 2021), pp. 3-20.
- Sarah Kirchberger, “China’s Undersea Warfare,” Testimony before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission Hearing on China’s Pursuit of Defense Technologies: Implications for U.S. and Multilateral Export Control and Investment Screening Regimes on 13 April 2023, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/202304/Sarah_Kirchberger_Testimony.pdf.
- James Bussert and Bruce A. Elleman, People’s Liberation Army Navy Combat Systems Technology, 1949-2010 (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2011), p. 2.
- Sources relied on include published reference works; analyses based on satellite imagery and other visual evidence; Chinese scientific journal articles; Western, Chinese, and Russian news reports; official websites of Chinese industries and R&D units; job advertisements; industry brochures and presentations shown or collected at arms fairs and conferences on naval weapon systems; and background interviews with undersea warfare experts and practitioners from the industry and military communities.
- Sue Hall and Audrye Wong, “Key Factors in Chinese Shipyards’ Development and Performance: Commercial- Military Synergy and Divergence,” in Andrew S. Erickson (ed.), Chinese Naval Shipbuilding: An Ambitious and Uncertain Course (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2016), pp. 75-106, p. 81ff.
- Andrew S. Erickson, “Introduction: China’s Military Shipbuilding Industry Steams Ahead, On What Course?”, in Erickson (ed.), Chinese Naval Shipbuilding, pp. 8-10.
- Kevin Pollpeter and Mark Stokes, “China’s Military Shipbuilding Research, Development, and Acquisition System,”in Erickson (ed.), Chinese Naval Shipbuilding: An Ambitious and Uncertain Course (Annapolis, MD: U.S. Naval Institute Press, 2016), p. 183.
- See https://web.archive.org/web/20170420112250/http://www.bsic.com.cn/Home/CorpSummary/. BSHIC’s official website (bsic.com.cn) seems to have been offline for years, though it is still listed on its holding conglomerate CSSC’s website directory (http://www.cssc.net.cn/n11/index.html). On MCF, see Richard A. Bitzinger, “China’s Shift fromCivil-Military Integration to Military-Civil Fusion,” Asia Policy, Volume 16, No. 1 (January 2021), pp. 5–24; pp. 7-8. https://www.rsis.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Asia-Policy-16.1-Jan-2021-Richard-Bitzinger.pdf.
- A short clip from the TV series “World Strategy” shows interesting footage of the Bohai Shipyard’s state-of-the-ar welding and construction facilities. See 环球战备 World Strategy,中国原子弹大踏步向前,渤海造船厂暴露秘密:六艘核潜艇同时建造! “China's Atomic Bomb is Making Great Strides Forward, and the Bohai Shipyard Reveals its Secrets: Six Nuclear Submarines are Built at the Same Time”, 25 October 2020, 00:03:20, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K-nyrGTZSZU. Christopher P. Carlson has revised his initial assessment that this particular hall might be tied to commercial build projects instead of submarines. Carlson based his analysis on satellite imagery that suggested—among other problems—that the hall’s foundation would be too weak to support the full weight of a nuclear submarine. According to a personal communication by Carlson received on 23 April 2023, all reasons cited in the above analysis to doubt the function of the hall as a submarine construction facility have by now dissolved. In particular, writes Carlson, “1) The approx. 6 meter wall blocking access to the graving dock was removed by mid-2017; 2) The Chinese produced a launch barge from Nov-Dec 2019 that aligns with the transfer system rails from the construction hall; 3) The width or gauge of the transfer system is 6.8 meters, not the about 6 meters in the original analysis. This is sufficient to move a completed submarine from the construction hall to the launch barge; 4) China has been using reactive powder concrete, also called ultra high performance concrete, which is at least twice as strong as the high strength concrete I assumed in my original analysis; 5) The Chinese launched a submarine from the new construction hall in January 2023—the proof is in the pudding as they say.” (Christopher P. Carlson, Personal Communication, 23 April 2023.). For Carlson’s original assessment, see Christopher P. Carlson, “Bohai Shipyard Expansion: New Assembly Line or Nuclear Submarine Production?”, Admiralty Trilogy website, 20 July 2017, http://www.admiraltytrilogy.com/pdf/Bohai.pdf.
- H.I. Sutton, “Further Expansion Of China's Nuclear Submarine Shipyard,” Covert Shores, 5 January 2023, http://www.hisutton.com/Chinese-Navy-Huludao-Expanding-202301.html.
- H.I. Sutton, “China Increases Production Of AIP Submarines With Massive New Shipyard,” Naval News, 16 February 2021, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/02/china-increases-production-of-aip-submarines-withmassive-new-shipyard/.
- Ibid.
- H.I. Sutton, “Chinese Navy Growth: Massive Expansion Of Important Shipyard”, Naval News, 15 March 2022, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/03/chinese-navy-growth-massive-expansion-of-important-shipyard/.
- Analysis of Jiangnan Shipyard,” CSIS, 17 December 2018, https://www.csis.org/analysis/analysis-jiangnanshipyard.
- A TV documentary on CCTV-7’s Military Channel (军事频道) that premiered on 14 November 2020 titled 揭秘中 国最大军工造船厂:走进江南造船探秘国之重器 “Demystifying China's Largest Military Shipyard: Walking into Jiangnan Shipbuilding to Explore the Country's Most Important Weapons”, 00:26:22,https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HywtBF29n68, showcases the shipyard’s remarkable build capacity and worldclass construction facilities.
- H.I. Sutton, “The Chinese Navy Is Building An Incredible Number Of Warships,” Forbes, 15 December 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/hisutton/2019/12/15/china-is-building-an-incredible-number-of-warships/; Vinayak Bhat, “High-Speed Production: Chinese Navy Built 83 ships in Just Eight Years,” The Print, 20 September 2017,https://theprint.in/defence/chinese-navy-built-83-ships-8-years/10416/.
- 中国公开疑似新型“无头”潜艇 外媒:它只用锂电池 “China Publicly Unveils a Suspected New Type Of ‘Headless’ Submarine—Foreign Media: It Runs on Lithium-Ion Batteries”, Sina Military, 10 July 2019, https://web.archive.org/web/20230328143835/https://mil.news.sina.com.cn/jssd/2019-07-10/docihytcitm0912066.shtml; H.I. Sutton, “The Chinese Navy’s New Mystery Submarine,” Forbes, 9 October 2019, https://www.forbes.com/sites/hisutton/2019/10/09/china-navy-new-mystery-submarine/.
- H.I. Sutton, “China’s New Submarine Is Unlike Anything In Western Navies,” Naval News, 15 February 2022, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/02/chinas-new-submarine-is-unlike-any-fielded-by-western-navies/. The images are provided in “China's CSIC Unveils Three New Submarine Designs for Export,” Navy Recognition, November 2017, https://www.navyrecognition.com/index.php/news/defence-news/2017/november-2017-navy-navalforces-defense-industry-technology-maritime-security-global-news/5719-china-s-csic-unveils-three-new-submarinedesigns-for-export.html.
- After a period of unsuccessful marketing, French naval shipbuilder DCNS in 2011 financed and built a demonstration version of its “Gowind” OPV design and offered it for lease to the French Navy to boost its export chances. That strategy proved successful. See D-Mitch, “L'Adroit Offshore Patrol Vessel of the French Navy”, Naval Analyses, 12 January 2015, https://www.navalanalyses.com/2015/01/ladroit-patrol-vessel-of-french-navy.html.
- H.I. Sutton, “Image May Reveal A New Type Of Submarine for the Chinese Navy,” Naval News, 12 May 2021, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/05/image-may-reveal-a-new-type-of-submarine-for-the-chinese-navy/.
- H.I. Sutton, “China’s Newest Attack Submarine Now Stationed Near Taiwan,” Naval Analyses, 11 August 2022, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2022/08/chinas-newest-attack-submarine-now-stationed-near-taiwan/.
- Interview with a submarine designer, 24 March 2023.
- Brad Lendon and Haley Britzkey, “US Can't Keep Up With China's Warship Building, Navy Secretary Says”, CNN,23 February 2023, https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/22/asia/us-navy-chief-china-pla-advantages-intl-hnkml/index.html.
- “How is China Modernizing its Navy?” CSIS China Power Project, 17 December 2018; updated 20 April 2022. https://chinapower.csis.org/china-naval-modernization/.
- Bhat, “High-Speed Production.”
- Gabriel Honrada, “AI Warship Designer Accelerating China’s Naval Lead,” Asia Times, 19 March 2023, https://asiatimes.com/2023/03/ai-warship-designer-accelerating-chinas-naval-lead/.
- See Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative, “Exploring China’s Unmanned Ocean Network,” with assistance from J. Michael Dahm, CSIS, 16 June 2020,https://amti.csis.org/exploring-chinas-unmanned-ocean-network/; J. Michael Dahm, “Inter-Island Communications”, South China Sea Military Capability Series, Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory, July 2020, p. 8, https://www.jhuapl.edu/sites/default/files/2022-12/Inter-IslandCommunications.pdf.
- 覃辉 [Qin Hui] and 翁辉 [Weng Hu], 超空泡射弹对反鱼雷作战体系贡献率的评估 [“Evaluation of Contribution Rate of Supercavitation Projectile to Anti-torpedo Combat System”], 数字海洋与水下攻防 [Digital Ocean & Underwater Warfare], vol. 4, no. 5 (October 2021), pp. 372-379.
- 宋强 [Song Qiang], 水下无人航行器燃料电池技术浅谈 [“Discussion on Fuel Cell Technology for Underwater Unmanned Vehicles”], 舰船科学技术 [Ship Science and Technology], vol. 42, no 12 (2020), pp. 150-154; 宋 强[Song Qiang], 赵满 [Zhao Man], and 毛柳伟 [Mao Liuwei], 浅析日本“凰龙”号潜艇动力系统技术状态 [“Analysis on Technical Status of the Power System of the Japanese Oryu Submarine JS”], 船电技术 [Marine Electric & Electronic Engineering], vol. 42, no. 12 (December 2022), pp. 22-29.
- 樊旭艳 [Fan Xuyan], 何锡玉 [He Xiyu], 杨亮 [Yang Liang] and 王叶 [Wang Ye], 海洋遥感在军事海洋环境保障 中的应用研究 [“Research on Application of Ocean Remote Sensing in Military Marine”], 海军工程大学学报 [Journal of Naval University of Engineering], vol 17, no. 3 (September 2020), pp. 39-42; and 孟荻 [Meng Di], 袁延 艺 [Yuan Yanyi], and 刘平香 [Liu Pingxiang], 声诱饵对尺度目标的回波模拟方法 [“Echo Simulation Method of Acoustic Decoy to Scale Target”], 声学技术 [Technical Acoustics], no. 3 (2015), pp. 275-278. Though listed here as a member of the Naval Equipment Research Institute in Shanghai, Meng Di was later identified in other articles as a member of the PLA Unit No. 91001.
- Daniel Alderman and Rush Doshi, “Civil-Military Integration Potential in Chinese Shipbuilding,” in Erickson (ed.), Chinese Naval Shipbuilding, p. 145; Hall and Wong, “Key Factors in Chinese Shipyards’ Development, p. 104.
- 青岛科技的“引进来”和“走出去 “The ‘Bringing In’ And ‘Going Out’ of Qingdao’s Science and Technology”,Sina.com.cn, 19 May 2018,https://web.archive.org/web/20221005222519/http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2018-05-19/docihaturfs5184650.
- 张严 [Zhang Yan], 武志东 [Wu Zhidong], and 张玉玲 [Zhang Yuling], 美英潜艇指控系统发展历程及启示 [“Development of U.S. and British Submarine Command Systems and Enlightenment”], 数字海洋与水下攻防 [Digital Ocean & Underwater Warfare], no. 6 (2022), p. 558. Slightly corrected machine translation.
- Elsa Kania, “Chinese Military Innovation in Artificial Intelligence”, Testimony before the U.S.-China Economic and Security Review Commission Hearing on Trade, Technology, and Military-Civil Fusion on 7 June 2019, p. 25, https://www.uscc.gov/sites/default/files/June%207%20Hearing_Panel%201_Elsa%20Kania_Chinese%20Military%20Innovation%20in%20Artificial%20Intelligence_0.pdf.
- Sarah Kirchberger and Johannes Mohr, “China’s Defence Industry,” in Keith Hartley and Jean Bélin (eds.), TheEconomics of the Global Defence Industry (London: Routledge, 2019), pp. 35-68; see in particular pp. 55, 59-60.
- “Exploring China’s Unmanned Ocean Network,” CSIS AMTI, 16 June 2020, https://amti.csis.org/exploring-chinasunmanned-ocean-network/.
- Matthew P. Funaiole, Joseph S. Bermudez Jr., and Brian Hart, “China’s Opaque Shipyards Should Raise Red Flags for Foreign Companies,” CSIS, 26 February 2021, https://www.csis.org/analysis/chinas-opaque-shipyards-shouldraise-red-flags-foreign-companies.
- Tai Ming Cheung, Fortifying China: The Struggle to Build a Modern Defense Economy (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 2009), p. 125; IISS, The Military Balance 2018 (London: Routledge, 2018), p. 234.
- Kirchberger and Mohr, “China’s Defence Industry,” pp. 52-53.
- Kathrin Hille, “China’s Military Budget Outpaces Other Spending in Shift to Security,” Financial Times, 5 March 2023, https://www.ft.com/content/66790beb-bd5b-4025-b12e-5d0e7dd8bbfb.
- 浙商证券有限公司 Zheshang Securities Co. Ltd. , 舰船水声防务龙头,内生外延双轮驱动──中国海防深度报告 “A Leader In Naval Hydroacoustic Defense, On A Two-Wheel Drive From Domestic Origins to Outward-Looking Expansion—In-Depth Report About CSSC China Marine Information Electronics Company Ltd./China Haiphong”, Hangzhou: Zheshang Securities (https://www.stocke.com.cn/), 7 February 2021,https://pdf.dfcfw.com/pdf/H3_AP202202081545678276_1.pdf?1644326407000.pdf, p. 17.
- Christopher P. Carlson, “China Maritime Report No. 10: PLAN Force Structure Projection Concept, A Methodology for Looking Down Range,” China Maritime Studies Institute, November 2020, pp. 11-12, https://digitalcommons.usnwc.edu/cmsi-maritime-reports/10/.
- “How Developed Is China’s Arms Industry?”, CSIS China Power Project, 18 February 2021, Updated February 25,2021, https://chinapower.csis.org/arms-companies/.
- See the collection of Chinese industry brochures on underwater warfare systems, including gliders, UUVs,submarine decoys, the “FishBot” UUV, export submarines, and ocean surveillance network technologies published by Wendell Minnick in 2019: W. Minnick, Chinese Submarines and Underwater Warfare Systems, independently published, https://www.amazon.com/-/de/dp/1794009442/.
- Stephen Chen, “China Military Develops Robotic Submarines to Launch a New Era of Sea Power,” South China Morning Post, 22 July 2018, www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2156361/china-developing-unmanned-aisubmarines-launch-new-era-sea-power.
- Kania, “Chinese Military Innovation,” p. 13.
- H.I. Sutton, “China Reveals New Heavily Armed Extra-Large Uncrewed Submarine,” Naval News, 23 February 2023, https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2023/02/china-reveals-new-heavily-armed-extra-large-uncrewedsubmarine/.
- Minnick, Chinese Submarines, p. 15.
- U.S. Department of Defense, Military and Security Developments Involving the People’s Republic of China 2022:Annual Report to Congress, https://media.defense.gov/2022/Nov/29/2003122279/-1/-1/1/2022-MILITARY-ANDSECURITY-DEVELOPMENTS-INVOLVING-THE-PEOPLES-REPUBLIC-OF-CHINA.PDF, p. 96.
- See the detailed discussion of Chinese reactor design related issues in Andrew S. Erickson, Jonathan Ray, and Robert T. Forte, “Underpowered: Chinese Conventional and Nuclear Naval Power and Propulsion,” in Erickson (ed.),Chinese Naval Shipbuilding, pp. 242-244.
- Liu Zhen, “Is China’s Nuclear Attack Submarine Too Easy To Detect?”, South China Morning Post, 28 January 2018, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2130870/chinas-nuclear-attack-submarine-tooeasy-detect.
- Евгений Даманцев Evgeny Damantsev, Инцидент с игрой в кошки-мышки между британской АУГ икитайскими МАПЛ типа 093 обрастает подробностями “The Cat-And-Mouse Game Between the British Carrier Strike Group and China's Type 093 SSNs In Greater Detail”, Военное обозрение Military Review, 27 August 2021, https://web.archive.org/web/20230328200957/https://topwar.ru/186287-incident-s-igroj-v-koshki-myshkimezhdu-britanskoj-aug-i-kitajskimi-mapl-tipa-093-obrastaet-podrobnostjami.html, transl. O. Husieva.
- Евгений Даманцев Evgeny Damantsev, Операция НОАК по выдворению ВМС США из Южно-Китайскогоморя. Детали «Бьендонгской зоны A2/AD» - часть 2 “PLA Operation to Expel the U.S. Navy from the South China Sea. Details of the Bien Dong A2/AD Zone—Part 2”, Военное Military Review, 5 July 2017, https://web.archive.org/web/20230326165817/https://topwar.ru/119466-operaciya-noak-po-vydvoreniyu-vms-ssha-izyuzhno-kitayskogo-morya-detali-bendongskoy-zony-a2-ad-chast-2.html, transl. O. Husieva.
- 马宏伟 [Ma Hongwei], 走向深蓝的中国海军 The Chinese Navy on the Way Towards Deep Blue, (Shanghai:Fudan University Press, 2020), pp. 169-170.
- “JL-3 Missile to Change China’s Emphasis of Nuclear Triad,” China-Arms, 24 June 2019,https://web.archive.org/web/20230323111129/https://www.china-arms.com/2019/06/jl-3-missile-to-change-chinasemphasis-of-nuclear-triad/.
- Ma, The Chinese Navy on the Way Towards Deep Blue, pp. 160-170. The same performance data is cited in a 2021piece by another Chinese military commentator on Zhihu, see: 候博士 Hou Boshi, 中国096 型核潜艇,号称“海洋杀手”,达到世界先进水平 “China's Type 096 nuclear submarine, known as the ‘ocean killer’, has reached the world's advanced level”, 知乎 Zhihu, 12 March 2021, https://zhuanlan.zhihu.com/p/356559941; an English translation of that article by MEMRI is available at https://www.memri.org/reports/chinese-commentator-chinas-type-096-nuclear-submarine-paired-jl-3-third-generation.
- Tom Shugart @tshugart3, “Submarine pressure hull sections seen here in the past have mostly been 9-10m in diameter, as used in the Shang & Jin class SSNs/SSBNs. But this imagery shot shows what looks like another pressure hull section that is roughly 12m in diameter. Could this be for the 095/096?”, Twitter, 9 November 2022, 07:10 pm, https://twitter.com/tshugart3/status/1594030283279503361/photo/1.
- Christian Conroy, “China's Ballistic-Missile Submarines: How Dangerous?”, The National Interest, 18 November 2013, https://nationalinterest.org/commentary/chinas-ballistic-missile-submarines-how-dangerous-9414.
- “JL-3 Missile to Change China’s Emphasis of Nuclear Triad.”
- 叶礼裕 Ye Liyu, 王超 Wang Chao, 郭春雨 Guo Chunyu, and 常欣 Chang Xin, 潜艇破冰上浮近场动力学模型 Peridynamic Model for Submarine Surfacing Through Ice”, 中国舰船研究 Chinese Journal of Ship Research, vol. 13, no. 2 (2018), pp. 51-59; and 叶礼裕 Ye Liyu , 王超 Wang Chao, 常欣 Chang Xin, and 张洪 雨 Zhang Hongyu, 冰桨接触的近场动力学模型 “Peridynamic Model for Propeller-Ice Contact”, 哈尔滨工程大 学学报 Journal of Harbin Engineering University, vol. 39, no. 2 (2018), pp. 222-228.
- 黄加强 Huang Jiaqiang, 北极航行对潜艇航行性能影响研究 [“Research on Submarine Navigation in the Arctic”], 舰船电子工程 Ship Electronic Engineering, vol. 40, no. 9 (September 2020), pp. 62-66.
- For further detail on the involved organizations, see Frank Jüris, “Sino-Russian Scientific Cooperation in the Arctic: From Deep Sea to Deep Space,” in Sarah Kirchberger, Svenja Sinjen, and Nils Wörmer (eds.), Russia-China Relations: Emerging Alliance or Eternal Rivals? (Bonn, Germany: Springer, 2022), pp. 189-90, 192-195. For a report on the 3rd “China Russia Polar Acoustics and Information Technology Forum” on 6 May 2023, see Harbin Engineering University’s press release “The Key Laboratory of Polar Ocean Acoustics and Technology Applications of the Ministry of Education was unveiled and established,” Harbin Engineering University, 8 May 2023, archived version available at https://web.archive.org/web/20230601161440/https://english.hrbeu.edu.cn/info/1101/3515.htm.
- John Pomfret, “Chinese Submarine Accident Kills 70,” Washington Post, 3 May 2003, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/2003/05/03/chinese-submarine-accident-kills-70/755b8587-e1b2-4eba-a1fc-e88e4eb9c016/.
- See the compilation of presumed PLAN accidents due to technical malfunction in Sarah Kirchberger, Assessing China’s Naval Power: Technological Innovation, Economic Constraints, and Strategic Implications (Berlin, Germany: Springer, 2015), p. 224.
- Stephen Chen, “‘Underwater Tornadoes’ Found Near China’s Nuclear Submarine Base By Paracels That Could Sink U-Boats In Treacherous Abyss,” South China Morning Post, 10 December 2015, https://www.scmp.com/tech/science-research/article/1889226/underwater-tornadoes-found-near-chinas-nuclearsubmarine-base.
- 372 潜艇成功排险,带伤突破外军舰机立体反潜网 “Submarine 372 Successfully Defeats Danger, Breaks Through Foreign Ships' and Aircraft's Three-Dimensional Anti-Submarine Network While Wounded”, 人民日报 [People’s Daily], 18 December 2014, https://web.archive.org/web/20230324231812/http://military.people.com.cn/n/2014/1218/c1011-26231738.html.Slightly corrected machine translation.
- Jamie Seidel, “‘Highly Unusual Event’: Chinese Nuclear Sub In ‘Embarrassing’ South China Sea Incident,” News.com.au, 17 October 2019, https://www.news.com.au/world/asia/highly-unusual-event-chinese-nuclear-sub-in-embarrassing-south-china-seaincident/news-story/650d17f451e27338e912f4b072cfcb02.
- Richard D. Fisher, Jr., “The Impact of Foreign Technology on China’s Submarine Force and Operations,” in Andrew S. Erickson, Lyle J. Goldstein, William S. Murray, and Andrew R. Wilson (eds.), China’s Future Nuclear Submarine Force (Annapolis, MD: Naval Institute Press, 2007), p. 135; Damantsev, “PLA Operation to Expel the U.S. Navy from the South China Sea.”
- Bussert and Elleman, People’s Liberation Army Navy Combat Systems Technology, p. 33.
- Ma, The Chinese Navy on the Way Towards Deep Blue, pp. 70-71.
- Евгений Даманцев Evgeny Damantsev, Допрыгались! 7-й флот ВМС США попадёт на мушку уникальной модификации «Палтуса» “You've had it! US 7th Fleet Hits the Target of a Unique Modification of the Project 877 Paltus”, Военное обозрение Military Review, 18 September 2018, https://topwar.ru/147131-doprygalis-7-j-flot-vms-ssha-popadet-na-mushku-unikalnoj-modifikacii-paltusa.html; 中国 AIP 潜艇为何强:发动机功率超国外117% “Why China's AIP Submarine Is Strong: Engine Power Exceeds Foreign Countries by 117%”, 军事要闻观察者网 Military News Observer Network, 5 May 2015,https://web.archive.org/web/20150726040029/http://news.qq.com/a/20150505/050443.htm.
- 深度:浅谈中国海军039 潜艇 AIP 技术成战略意义 [“In Depth: Talking about the Strategic Significance of the Chinese Navy's 039 submarine AIP technology”], Sina Military, 18 February 2014, https://web.archive.org/web/20230325232533/https://mil.news.sina.com.cn/2014-02-18/1533764810.html. Slightly corrected machine translation.
- Ibid.
- “Why China's AIP Submarine Is Strong: Engine Power Exceeds Foreign Countries by 117%.”
- “In Depth: Talking about the Strategic Significance of the Chinese Navy's 039 submarine AIP technology.”
- Ibid.
- “Why China's AIP Submarine Is Strong: Engine Power Exceeds Foreign Countries by 117%.”
- Liu Xuanzun, “China Develops World's Most Powerful Stirling Engine,” Global Times, 22 December 2021, https://www.globaltimes.cn/page/202112/1243157.shtml.
- “China Eyeing Deadlier Submarines, Safer Nuclear Reactors With New Stirling Engine?”, The Week, December 2021, https://www.theweek.in/news/sci-tech/2021/12/24/china-eyeing-deadlier-submarines-safer-nuclear-reactorswith-new-stirling-engine.html.
- Damantsev, “You've had it! US 7th Fleet Hits the Target of a Unique Modification of the Project 877 Paltus.”
- Ibid.
- The company homepage of Shanghai Qiyao alias MicroPowers states that in 2002, ownership of the Special Engine Engineering Research Center of SMDERI (alias the 711th Research Institute) was transformed to create Shanghai MicroPowers Ltd., whose shares are jointly held by CSIC and the 711th RI and which describes itself as “the only manufacturer of the Stirling engine generator unit in China”. See the MicroPowers company profile on the oficial homepage’s About section as archived on 5 June 2023,https://web.archive.org/web/20230605143720/http://micropowers.com/en/company.aspx.
- Amanda Rivkin, “German technology found in China's warships: report,” Deutsche Welle, 11 June 2021,https://www.dw.com/en/german-engine-technology-found-in-chinese-warships-report/a-59740301; Franz-Stefan Gady, “Why China’s Submarine Force Still Lags Behind,” The Diplomat, 28 May 2015, https://thediplomat.com/2015/05/why-chinas-submarine-force-still-lags-behind/.
- Sebastian Strangio, “Thailand’s Navy Chief Says Country Could Cancel Chinese Sub Contract,” The Diplomat, 23 November 2022, https://thediplomat.com/2022/11/thailands-navy-chief-says-country-could-cancel-chinese-subcontract/;“Wuhan Trip To Clear Engine Doubts,” Bangkok Post, updated 30 January 2023,https://www.bangkokpost.com/thailand/special-reports/2494147/wuhan-trip-to-clear-engine-doubts.
- MTU Website, “Underwater,” https://www.mtu-solutions.com/cn/zh/stories/marine/military-governmentalvessels/underwater.html, accessed 27 March 2023.
- Interview on 21 March 2023.
- Interview with a shipbuilding industry executive, 24 March 2023.
- Song, “Discussion on Fuel Cell Technology for Underwater Unmanned Vehicles,” p. 154.
- Baba Tamim, “China: Lithium Batteries May Soon Power ‘World's Largest Fleet’ Of Submarines,” Interesting Engineering, 30 October 2022, https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/lithium-batteries-to-power-chinasubmarines.
- Song, Zhao, and Mao, “Analysis on Technical Status of The Power System of the Japanese Oryu Submarine Js,” p.22.
- 王峰 [Wang Feng], 张栋 [Zhang Dong], and 孙飞龙 [Song Feilong],锂离子电池装备于常规潜艇可行性分析[“Feasibility Analysis of Lithium-ion Batteries in Conventional Submarine”], 船电技术 [Marine Electric & Electronic Engineering], vol. 42, no. 10 (October 2022), p. 153.
- Ibid., p. 153.
- Ibid., pp. 153-154.
- Ibid., p. 155.
- Tamim, “China: Lithium Batteries May Soon Power ‘World's Largest Fleet’ of Submarines.”
- For a detailed discussion, see Leigh Ann Ragland-Luce and John Costello, “PLA Shipboard Electronics: ImpedingChina’s Naval Modernization,” in Erickson (ed.), Chinese Naval Shipbuilding, pp. 221-237.
- 丹华 [Sun Danhua], 王 琛 [Wang Chen], and 苏焕焕 [Su Huanhuan], 指挥信息系统智能化问题探讨[“Discussion on Intelligence Problem of Command Information System”], 兵工自动化 [Ordnance Industry Automation] vol. 40, no. 8 (2021), p. 6.
- 张志华 [Zhang Zhihua] and 王凡 [Wang Fan], 第五代指挥信息系统总体及其智能化技术设想 [“The Fifth Generation Command Information System and Its Intelligent Technology”], 指挥控制与仿真 [Command Control & Simulation], vol. 43, no. 5 (October 2021), pp. 1-7.
- 张严 [Zhang Yan], 武志东 [Wu Zhidong], and 张玉玲 [Zhang Yuling], 美英潜艇指控系统发展历程及启示[“Development of U.S. and British Submarine Command Systems and Enlightenment”], 数字海洋与水下攻防 [Digital Ocean & Underwater Warfare], no. 6 (2022), p. 558. Slightly corrected machine translation.
- Ibid., p. 557. Slightly corrected machine translation.
- Stephen Chen, “China’s Underwater Surveillance Network Puts Enemies In Focus Along Maritime Silk Road”,South China Morning Post, 31 December 2017,https://www.scmp.com/news/china/diplomacy-defence/article/2126296/chinas-underwater-surveillance-network-putsenemies.
- Stephen Chen, “China’s Plan To Use Artificial Intelligence To Boost The Thinking Skills Of Nuclear Submarine Commanders,” South China Morning Post, 20 July 2018, https://web.archive.org/web/20190228194123/https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/2131127/chinasplan-use-artificial-intelligence-boost-thinking-skills.
- See e.g. Dalian Naval Academy’s 寇祝 [Kou Zhu], 刘晓 [Liu Xiao], and 光李伟 [Guang Liwei],世界超高速鱼雷发展现状与关键技术 [“Current Status And Key Technologies Of Supercavitating Torpedo Development in the World”], 飞航导弹 [Aerodynamic Missile Journal], no. 7 (2019), pp. 56-58.
- Stephen Chen, “Chinese Scientists Plan ‘Disposable' Nuclear Reactor for Long-Range Torpedo," South China Morning Post, 20 July 2022, https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3185980/chinese-scientists-plandisposable-nuclear-reactor-long-range.
- 愤怒熊猫 [Fennu xiongmao], 055 大驱升起俄方国旗,俄海军司令造访上海船厂:有大生意要做吗?[“The Large Type 055 Destroyer Hoisted The Russian Flag, And The Commander Of The Russian Navy Visited The Shanghai Shipyard: Is There Any Big Business To Do?”], 观察 [Guancha], 8 July 2023, https://web.archive.org/web/20230721233848/https://user.guancha.cn/main/content?id=1035574.
- Caleb Larson, “Russia and China Want To Build a Non-nuclear Submarine Together,” The National Interest, 28 August 2020, https://nationalinterest.org/print/blog/buzz/russia-and-china-want-build-non-nuclear-submarinetogether-167911.
- The ASRTU‘s Russian homepage is https://misis.ru/university/struktura-universiteta/association/aturk/; its Chineseweb page is available as archived in May 2022 at https://web.archive.org/web/20220630081856/http://www.asrtu.cn/.A list of topics presented at the 2nd “China-Russia Polar Acoustics and Communication Technology Forum” on Nov.28, 2020 contains distributed sensor networks, arctic sea-floor mapping, undersea communication, among other sensitive technology areas. See: “Сhina-Russia Symposium on Hydroacoustics and Information Technologies—Nov,28, 2020”, https://marinet.org/сhina-russia-symposium-on-hydroacoustics-and-information-technologies-november-28-29/.
- Patrick Senft @SenftPatrick, “The #US @DeptofDefense just announced that #Russia was supplying “highly enriched Uranium” to #China. Now, why would China do that? A brief…”, Twitter, 9 March 2023, 7:22 pm, https://twitter.com/SenftPatrick/status/1633896095515328534.
- Andrew S. Erickson and Gabriel Collins, “Putin’s Ukraine Invasion: Turbocharging Sino-Russian Collaboration in Energy, Maritime Security, and Beyond?”, Naval War College Review, vol. 75, no. 4 (2022), https://digitalcommons.usnwc.edu/nwc-review/vol75/iss4/8.
- [message]
- Fuente:
- Sarah Kirchberger. (n.d.). China maritime report no. 31: China’s Submarine Industrial Base: State-led innovation with Chinese characteristics. U.S. Naval War College Digital Commons. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/cmsi-maritime-reports/31
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